thodg/libgit2

diff --git a/examples/status.c b/examples/status.c
index 3adfe0d..feba77f 100644
--- a/examples/status.c
+++ b/examples/status.c
@@ -363,18 +363,21 @@ static void print_short(git_repository *repo, git_status_list *status)
 			unsigned int smstatus = 0;
 
 			if (!git_submodule_lookup(
-					&sm, repo, s->index_to_workdir->new_file.path) &&
-				!git_submodule_status(&smstatus, sm))
-			{
-				if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED)
-					extra = " (new commits)";
-				else if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_INDEX_MODIFIED)
-					extra = " (modified content)";
-				else if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_WD_MODIFIED)
-					extra = " (modified content)";
-				else if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_UNTRACKED)
-					extra = " (untracked content)";
+					&sm, repo, s->index_to_workdir->new_file.path)) {
+
+				if (!git_submodule_status(&smstatus, sm)) {
+					if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED)
+						extra = " (new commits)";
+					else if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_INDEX_MODIFIED)
+						extra = " (modified content)";
+					else if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_WD_MODIFIED)
+						extra = " (modified content)";
+					else if (smstatus & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_UNTRACKED)
+						extra = " (untracked content)";
+				}
 			}
+
+			git_submodule_free(sm);
 		}
 
 		/**
diff --git a/include/git2/submodule.h b/include/git2/submodule.h
index ac0abc0..789f2c0 100644
--- a/include/git2/submodule.h
+++ b/include/git2/submodule.h
@@ -123,22 +123,28 @@ typedef enum {
  *   There may or may not be anything else at that path, but nothing that
  *   looks like a submodule.  In this case, this returns GIT_ENOTFOUND.
  *
- * The submodule object is owned by the containing repo and will be freed
- * when the repo is freed.  The caller need not free the submodule.
+ * You must call `git_submodule_free` when done with the submodule.
  *
- * @param submodule Pointer to submodule description object pointer..
- * @param repo The repository.
- * @param name The name of the submodule.  Trailing slashes will be ignored.
+ * @param out Output ptr to submodule; pass NULL to just get return code
+ * @param repo The parent repository
+ * @param name The name of or path to the submodule; trailing slashes okay
  * @return 0 on success, GIT_ENOTFOUND if submodule does not exist,
- *         GIT_EEXISTS if submodule exists in working directory only, -1 on
- *         other errors.
+ *         GIT_EEXISTS if submodule exists in working directory only,
+ *         -1 on other errors.
  */
 GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_lookup(
-	git_submodule **submodule,
+	git_submodule **out,
 	git_repository *repo,
 	const char *name);
 
 /**
+ * Release a submodule
+ *
+ * @param submodule Submodule object
+ */
+GIT_EXTERN(void) git_submodule_free(git_submodule *submodule);
+
+/**
  * Iterate over all tracked submodules of a repository.
  *
  * See the note on `git_submodule` above.  This iterates over the tracked
@@ -175,9 +181,11 @@ GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_foreach(
  * `git_submodule_add_finalize()` to wrap up adding the new submodule and
  * .gitmodules to the index to be ready to commit.
  *
- * @param submodule The newly created submodule ready to open for clone
- * @param repo Superproject repository to contain the new submodule
- * @param url URL for the submodules remote
+ * You must call `git_submodule_free` on the submodule object when done.
+ *
+ * @param out The newly created submodule ready to open for clone
+ * @param repo The repository in which you want to create the submodule
+ * @param url URL for the submodule's remote
  * @param path Path at which the submodule should be created
  * @param use_gitlink Should workdir contain a gitlink to the repo in
  *        .git/modules vs. repo directly in workdir.
@@ -185,7 +193,7 @@ GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_foreach(
  *         -1 on other errors.
  */
 GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_add_setup(
-	git_submodule **submodule,
+	git_submodule **out,
 	git_repository *repo,
 	const char *url,
 	const char *path,
@@ -493,15 +501,23 @@ GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_open(
  *
  * Call this to reread cached submodule information for this submodule if
  * you have reason to believe that it has changed.
+ *
+ * @param submodule The submodule to reload
+ * @param force Force reload even if the data doesn't seem out of date
+ * @return 0 on success, <0 on error
  */
-GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_reload(git_submodule *submodule);
+GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_reload(git_submodule *submodule, int force);
 
 /**
  * Reread all submodule info.
  *
  * Call this to reload all cached submodule information for the repo.
+ *
+ * @param repo The repository to reload submodule data for
+ * @param force Force full reload even if the data doesn't seem out of date
+ * @return 0 on success, <0 on error
  */
-GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_reload_all(git_repository *repo);
+GIT_EXTERN(int) git_submodule_reload_all(git_repository *repo, int force);
 
 /**
  * Get the status for a submodule.
diff --git a/src/checkout.c b/src/checkout.c
index f882f35..468c8dc 100644
--- a/src/checkout.c
+++ b/src/checkout.c
@@ -147,19 +147,23 @@ static bool checkout_is_workdir_modified(
 		git_submodule *sm;
 		unsigned int sm_status = 0;
 		const git_oid *sm_oid = NULL;
+		bool rval = false;
 
-		if (git_submodule_lookup(&sm, data->repo, wditem->path) < 0 ||
-			git_submodule_status(&sm_status, sm) < 0)
-			return true;
-
-		if (GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_WD_DIRTY(sm_status))
+		if (git_submodule_lookup(&sm, data->repo, wditem->path) < 0) {
+			giterr_clear();
 			return true;
+		}
 
-		sm_oid = git_submodule_wd_id(sm);
-		if (!sm_oid)
-			return false;
+		if (git_submodule_status(&sm_status, sm) < 0 ||
+			GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_WD_DIRTY(sm_status))
+			rval = true;
+		else if ((sm_oid = git_submodule_wd_id(sm)) == NULL)
+			rval = false;
+		else
+			rval = (git_oid__cmp(&baseitem->id, sm_oid) != 0);
 
-		return (git_oid__cmp(&baseitem->id, sm_oid) != 0);
+		git_submodule_free(sm);
+		return rval;
 	}
 
 	/* Look at the cache to decide if the workdir is modified.  If not,
@@ -324,12 +328,17 @@ static bool submodule_is_config_only(
 {
 	git_submodule *sm = NULL;
 	unsigned int sm_loc = 0;
+	bool rval = false;
 
-	if (git_submodule_lookup(&sm, data->repo, path) < 0 ||
-		git_submodule_location(&sm_loc, sm) < 0 ||
-		sm_loc == GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_CONFIG)
+	if (git_submodule_lookup(&sm, data->repo, path) < 0)
 		return true;
 
+	if (git_submodule_location(&sm_loc, sm) < 0 ||
+		sm_loc == GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_CONFIG)
+		rval = true;
+
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+
 	return false;
 }
 
@@ -1258,7 +1267,6 @@ static int checkout_submodule(
 	const git_diff_file *file)
 {
 	int error = 0;
-	git_submodule *sm;
 
 	/* Until submodules are supported, UPDATE_ONLY means do nothing here */
 	if ((data->strategy & GIT_CHECKOUT_UPDATE_ONLY) != 0)
@@ -1269,7 +1277,7 @@ static int checkout_submodule(
 			data->opts.dir_mode, GIT_MKDIR_PATH)) < 0)
 		return error;
 
-	if ((error = git_submodule_lookup(&sm, data->repo, file->path)) < 0) {
+	if ((error = git_submodule_lookup(NULL, data->repo, file->path)) < 0) {
 		/* I've observed repos with submodules in the tree that do not
 		 * have a .gitmodules - core Git just makes an empty directory
 		 */
@@ -1510,7 +1518,7 @@ static int checkout_create_submodules(
 
 	/* initial reload of submodules if .gitmodules was changed */
 	if (data->reload_submodules &&
-		(error = git_submodule_reload_all(data->repo)) < 0)
+		(error = git_submodule_reload_all(data->repo, 1)) < 0)
 		return error;
 
 	git_vector_foreach(&data->diff->deltas, i, delta) {
@@ -1534,7 +1542,7 @@ static int checkout_create_submodules(
 	}
 
 	/* final reload once submodules have been updated */
-	return git_submodule_reload_all(data->repo);
+	return git_submodule_reload_all(data->repo, 1);
 }
 
 static int checkout_lookup_head_tree(git_tree **out, git_repository *repo)
diff --git a/src/diff.c b/src/diff.c
index dc7735f..25c5937 100644
--- a/src/diff.c
+++ b/src/diff.c
@@ -528,12 +528,15 @@ int git_diff__oid_for_file(
 	/* calculate OID for file if possible */
 	if (S_ISGITLINK(mode)) {
 		git_submodule *sm;
-		const git_oid *sm_oid;
 
-		if (!git_submodule_lookup(&sm, repo, path) &&
-			(sm_oid = git_submodule_wd_id(sm)) != NULL)
-			git_oid_cpy(oid, sm_oid);
-		else {
+		memset(oid, 0, sizeof(*oid));
+
+		if (!git_submodule_lookup(&sm, repo, path)) {
+			const git_oid *sm_oid = git_submodule_wd_id(sm);
+			if (sm_oid)
+				git_oid_cpy(oid, sm_oid);
+			git_submodule_free(sm);
+		} else {
 			/* if submodule lookup failed probably just in an intermediate
 			 * state where some init hasn't happened, so ignore the error
 			 */
@@ -615,24 +618,24 @@ static int maybe_modified_submodule(
 	}
 
 	if (ign <= 0 && git_submodule_ignore(sub) == GIT_SUBMODULE_IGNORE_ALL)
-		return 0;
-
-	if ((error = git_submodule__status(
+		/* ignore it */;
+	else if ((error = git_submodule__status(
 			&sm_status, NULL, NULL, found_oid, sub, ign)) < 0)
-		return error;
+		/* return error below */;
 
 	/* check IS_WD_UNMODIFIED because this case is only used
 	 * when the new side of the diff is the working directory
 	 */
-	if (!GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_WD_UNMODIFIED(sm_status))
+	else if (!GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_WD_UNMODIFIED(sm_status))
 		*status = GIT_DELTA_MODIFIED;
 
 	/* now that we have a HEAD OID, check if HEAD moved */
-	if ((sm_status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_WD) != 0 &&
+	else if ((sm_status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_WD) != 0 &&
 		!git_oid_equal(&info->oitem->id, found_oid))
 		*status = GIT_DELTA_MODIFIED;
 
-	return 0;
+	git_submodule_free(sub);
+	return error;
 }
 
 static int maybe_modified(
@@ -960,10 +963,8 @@ static int handle_unmatched_new_item(
 		delta_type = GIT_DELTA_ADDED;
 
 	else if (nitem->mode == GIT_FILEMODE_COMMIT) {
-		git_submodule *sm;
-
 		/* ignore things that are not actual submodules */
-		if (git_submodule_lookup(&sm, info->repo, nitem->path) != 0) {
+		if (git_submodule_lookup(NULL, info->repo, nitem->path) != 0) {
 			giterr_clear();
 			delta_type = GIT_DELTA_IGNORED;
 		}
diff --git a/src/diff_file.c b/src/diff_file.c
index 7dabf8d..b9f92df 100644
--- a/src/diff_file.c
+++ b/src/diff_file.c
@@ -177,11 +177,17 @@ static int diff_file_content_commit_to_str(
 		unsigned int sm_status = 0;
 		const git_oid *sm_head;
 
-		if ((error = git_submodule_lookup(&sm, fc->repo, fc->file->path)) < 0 ||
-			(error = git_submodule_status(&sm_status, sm)) < 0) {
+		if ((error = git_submodule_lookup(&sm, fc->repo, fc->file->path)) < 0) {
 			/* GIT_EEXISTS means a "submodule" that has not been git added */
-			if (error == GIT_EEXISTS)
+			if (error == GIT_EEXISTS) {
+				giterr_clear();
 				error = 0;
+			}
+			return error;
+		}
+
+		if ((error = git_submodule_status(&sm_status, sm)) < 0) {
+			git_submodule_free(sm);
 			return error;
 		}
 
@@ -196,6 +202,8 @@ static int diff_file_content_commit_to_str(
 
 		if (GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_WD_DIRTY(sm_status))
 			status = "-dirty";
+
+		git_submodule_free(sm);
 	}
 
 	git_oid_tostr(oid, sizeof(oid), &fc->file->id);
@@ -312,7 +320,8 @@ static int diff_file_content_load_workdir_file(
 
 		error = git_filter_list_apply_to_data(&out, fl, &raw);
 
-		git_buf_free(&raw);
+		if (out.ptr != raw.ptr)
+			git_buf_free(&raw);
 
 		if (!error) {
 			fc->map.len  = out.size;
diff --git a/src/submodule.c b/src/submodule.c
index 9eaf77d..769b092 100644
--- a/src/submodule.c
+++ b/src/submodule.c
@@ -77,12 +77,12 @@ __KHASH_IMPL(
 	str, static kh_inline, const char *, void *, 1,
 	str_hash_no_trailing_slash, str_equal_no_trailing_slash);
 
-static int load_submodule_config(git_repository *repo);
+static int load_submodule_config(git_repository *repo, bool reload);
 static git_config_backend *open_gitmodules(git_repository *, bool, const git_oid *);
 static int lookup_head_remote(git_buf *url, git_repository *repo);
 static int submodule_get(git_submodule **, git_repository *, const char *, const char *);
 static int submodule_load_from_config(const git_config_entry *, void *);
-static int submodule_load_from_wd_lite(git_submodule *, const char *, void *);
+static int submodule_load_from_wd_lite(git_submodule *);
 static int submodule_update_config(git_submodule *, const char *, const char *, bool, bool);
 static void submodule_get_index_status(unsigned int *, git_submodule *);
 static void submodule_get_wd_status(unsigned int *, git_submodule *, git_repository *, git_submodule_ignore_t);
@@ -99,27 +99,55 @@ static int submodule_config_key_trunc_puts(git_buf *key, const char *suffix)
 	return git_buf_puts(key, suffix);
 }
 
+/* lookup submodule or return ENOTFOUND if it doesn't exist */
+static int submodule_lookup(
+	git_submodule **out,
+	git_strmap *cache,
+	const char *name,
+	const char *alternate)
+{
+	khiter_t pos;
+
+	/* lock cache */
+
+	pos = git_strmap_lookup_index(cache, name);
+
+	if (!git_strmap_valid_index(cache, pos) && alternate)
+		pos = git_strmap_lookup_index(cache, alternate);
+
+	if (!git_strmap_valid_index(cache, pos)) {
+		/* unlock cache */
+		return GIT_ENOTFOUND; /* don't set error - caller will cope */
+	}
+
+	if (out != NULL) {
+		git_submodule *sm = git_strmap_value_at(cache, pos);
+		GIT_REFCOUNT_INC(sm);
+		*out = sm;
+	}
+
+	/* unlock cache */
+
+	return 0;
+}
+
 /*
  * PUBLIC APIS
  */
 
 int git_submodule_lookup(
-	git_submodule **sm_ptr, /* NULL if user only wants to test existence */
+	git_submodule **out, /* NULL if user only wants to test existence */
 	git_repository *repo,
-	const char *name)       /* trailing slash is allowed */
+	const char *name)    /* trailing slash is allowed */
 {
 	int error;
-	khiter_t pos;
 
 	assert(repo && name);
 
-	if ((error = load_submodule_config(repo)) < 0)
+	if ((error = load_submodule_config(repo, false)) < 0)
 		return error;
 
-	pos = git_strmap_lookup_index(repo->submodules, name);
-
-	if (!git_strmap_valid_index(repo->submodules, pos)) {
-		error = GIT_ENOTFOUND;
+	if ((error = submodule_lookup(out, repo->submodules, name, NULL)) < 0) {
 
 		/* check if a plausible submodule exists at path */
 		if (git_repository_workdir(repo)) {
@@ -137,14 +165,9 @@ int git_submodule_lookup(
 		giterr_set(GITERR_SUBMODULE, (error == GIT_ENOTFOUND) ?
 			"No submodule named '%s'" :
 			"Submodule '%s' has not been added yet", name);
-
-		return error;
 	}
 
-	if (sm_ptr)
-		*sm_ptr = git_strmap_value_at(repo->submodules, pos);
-
-	return 0;
+	return error;
 }
 
 int git_submodule_foreach(
@@ -159,7 +182,7 @@ int git_submodule_foreach(
 
 	assert(repo && callback);
 
-	if ((error = load_submodule_config(repo)) < 0)
+	if ((error = load_submodule_config(repo, true)) < 0)
 		return error;
 
 	git_strmap_foreach_value(repo->submodules, sm, {
@@ -198,12 +221,15 @@ void git_submodule_config_free(git_repository *repo)
 	if (smcfg == NULL)
 		return;
 
-	git_strmap_foreach_value(smcfg, sm, { git_submodule_free(sm); });
+	git_strmap_foreach_value(smcfg, sm, {
+		sm->repo = NULL; /* disconnect from repo */;
+		git_submodule_free(sm);
+	});
 	git_strmap_free(smcfg);
 }
 
 int git_submodule_add_setup(
-	git_submodule **submodule,
+	git_submodule **out,
 	git_repository *repo,
 	const char *url,
 	const char *path,
@@ -211,7 +237,7 @@ int git_submodule_add_setup(
 {
 	int error = 0;
 	git_config_backend *mods = NULL;
-	git_submodule *sm;
+	git_submodule *sm = NULL;
 	git_buf name = GIT_BUF_INIT, real_url = GIT_BUF_INIT;
 	git_repository_init_options initopt = GIT_REPOSITORY_INIT_OPTIONS_INIT;
 	git_repository *subrepo = NULL;
@@ -223,6 +249,7 @@ int git_submodule_add_setup(
 	if (git_submodule_lookup(&sm, repo, path) < 0)
 		giterr_clear();
 	else {
+		git_submodule_free(sm);
 		giterr_set(GITERR_SUBMODULE,
 			"Attempt to add a submodule that already exists");
 		return GIT_EEXISTS;
@@ -307,12 +334,16 @@ int git_submodule_add_setup(
 	/* add submodule to hash and "reload" it */
 
 	if (!(error = submodule_get(&sm, repo, path, NULL)) &&
-		!(error = git_submodule_reload(sm)))
+		!(error = git_submodule_reload(sm, false)))
 		error = git_submodule_init(sm, false);
 
 cleanup:
-	if (submodule != NULL)
-		*submodule = !error ? sm : NULL;
+	if (error && sm) {
+		git_submodule_free(sm);
+		sm = NULL;
+	}
+	if (out != NULL)
+		*out = sm;
 
 	if (mods != NULL)
 		git_config_file_free(mods);
@@ -775,11 +806,60 @@ int git_submodule_open(git_repository **subrepo, git_submodule *sm)
 	return git_submodule__open(subrepo, sm, false);
 }
 
-int git_submodule_reload_all(git_repository *repo)
+static void submodule_cache_remove_item(
+	git_strmap *cache,
+	const char *name,
+	git_submodule *expected,
+	bool free_after_remove)
 {
+	khiter_t pos;
+	git_submodule *found;
+
+	if (!cache)
+		return;
+
+	pos = git_strmap_lookup_index(cache, name);
+
+	if (!git_strmap_valid_index(cache, pos))
+		return;
+
+	found = git_strmap_value_at(cache, pos);
+
+	if (expected && found != expected)
+		return;
+
+	git_strmap_set_value_at(cache, pos, NULL);
+	git_strmap_delete_at(cache, pos);
+
+	if (free_after_remove)
+		git_submodule_free(found);
+}
+
+int git_submodule_reload_all(git_repository *repo, int force)
+{
+	int error = 0;
+	git_submodule *sm;
+
+	GIT_UNUSED(force);
 	assert(repo);
-	git_submodule_config_free(repo);
-	return load_submodule_config(repo);
+
+	if (repo->submodules)
+		git_strmap_foreach_value(repo->submodules, sm, { sm->flags = 0; });
+
+	error = load_submodule_config(repo, true);
+
+	git_strmap_foreach_value(repo->submodules, sm, {
+		git_strmap *cache = repo->submodules;
+
+		if ((sm->flags & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__IN_FLAGS) == 0) {
+			submodule_cache_remove_item(cache, sm->name, sm, true);
+
+			if (sm->path != sm->name)
+				submodule_cache_remove_item(cache, sm->path, sm, true);
+		}
+	});
+
+	return error;
 }
 
 static void submodule_update_from_index_entry(
@@ -855,11 +935,14 @@ static int submodule_update_head(git_submodule *submodule)
 	return 0;
 }
 
-int git_submodule_reload(git_submodule *submodule)
+
+int git_submodule_reload(git_submodule *submodule, int force)
 {
 	int error = 0;
 	git_config_backend *mods;
 
+	GIT_UNUSED(force);
+
 	assert(submodule);
 
 	/* refresh index data */
@@ -870,6 +953,10 @@ int git_submodule_reload(git_submodule *submodule)
 	if ((error = submodule_update_head(submodule)) < 0)
 		return error;
 
+	/* done if bare */
+	if (git_repository_is_bare(submodule->repo))
+		return error;
+
 	/* refresh config data */
 	mods = open_gitmodules(submodule->repo, false, NULL);
 	if (mods != NULL) {
@@ -893,11 +980,9 @@ int git_submodule_reload(git_submodule *submodule)
 	}
 
 	/* refresh wd data */
-	submodule->flags = submodule->flags &
-		~(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_WD | GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__WD_OID_VALID);
+	submodule->flags &= ~GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__ALL_WD_FLAGS;
 
-	return submodule_load_from_wd_lite(
-		submodule, submodule->path, submodule->repo);
+	return submodule_load_from_wd_lite(submodule);
 }
 
 static void submodule_copy_oid_maybe(
@@ -1026,6 +1111,13 @@ static void submodule_release(git_submodule *sm)
 	if (!sm)
 		return;
 
+	if (sm->repo) {
+		git_strmap *cache = sm->repo->submodules;
+		submodule_cache_remove_item(cache, sm->name, sm, false);
+		if (sm->path != sm->name)
+			submodule_cache_remove_item(cache, sm->path, sm, false);
+	}
+
 	if (sm->path != sm->name)
 		git__free(sm->path);
 	git__free(sm->name);
@@ -1042,17 +1134,15 @@ void git_submodule_free(git_submodule *sm)
 }
 
 static int submodule_get(
-	git_submodule **sm_ptr,
+	git_submodule **out,
 	git_repository *repo,
 	const char *name,
 	const char *alternate)
 {
+	int error = 0;
 	git_strmap *smcfg = repo->submodules;
 	khiter_t pos;
 	git_submodule *sm;
-	int error;
-
-	assert(repo && name);
 
 	pos = git_strmap_lookup_index(smcfg, name);
 
@@ -1068,22 +1158,28 @@ static int submodule_get(
 		 */
 		pos = kh_put(str, smcfg, sm->name, &error);
 
-		if (error < 0) {
-			git_submodule_free(sm);
-			sm = NULL;
-		} else if (error == 0) {
+		if (error < 0)
+			goto done;
+		else if (error == 0) {
 			git_submodule_free(sm);
 			sm = git_strmap_value_at(smcfg, pos);
 		} else {
+			error = 0;
 			git_strmap_set_value_at(smcfg, pos, sm);
 		}
 	} else {
 		sm = git_strmap_value_at(smcfg, pos);
 	}
 
-	*sm_ptr = sm;
+done:
+	if (error < 0)
+		git_submodule_free(sm);
+	else if (out) {
+		GIT_REFCOUNT_INC(sm);
+		*out = sm;
+	}
 
-	return (sm != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
+	return error;
 }
 
 static int submodule_config_error(const char *property, const char *value)
@@ -1143,7 +1239,7 @@ static int submodule_load_from_config(
 	const char *namestart, *property, *alternate = NULL;
 	const char *key = entry->name, *value = entry->value, *path;
 	git_buf name = GIT_BUF_INIT;
-	git_submodule *sm;
+	git_submodule *sm = NULL;
 	int error = 0;
 
 	if (git__prefixcmp(key, "submodule.") != 0)
@@ -1230,8 +1326,8 @@ static int submodule_load_from_config(
 		sm->update_default = sm->update;
 	}
 	else if (strcasecmp(property, "fetchRecurseSubmodules") == 0) {
-		if (git_submodule_parse_recurse(&sm->fetch_recurse, value) < 0)
-			return -1;
+		if ((error = git_submodule_parse_recurse(&sm->fetch_recurse, value)) < 0)
+			goto done;
 		sm->fetch_recurse_default = sm->fetch_recurse;
 	}
 	else if (strcasecmp(property, "ignore") == 0) {
@@ -1242,20 +1338,15 @@ static int submodule_load_from_config(
 	/* ignore other unknown submodule properties */
 
 done:
+	git_submodule_free(sm); /* offset refcount inc from submodule_get() */
 	git_buf_free(&name);
 	return error;
 }
 
-static int submodule_load_from_wd_lite(
-	git_submodule *sm, const char *name, void *payload)
+static int submodule_load_from_wd_lite(git_submodule *sm)
 {
 	git_buf path = GIT_BUF_INIT;
 
-	GIT_UNUSED(name); GIT_UNUSED(payload);
-
-	if (git_repository_is_bare(sm->repo))
-		return 0;
-
 	if (git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_workdir(sm->repo), sm->path) < 0)
 		return -1;
 
@@ -1293,8 +1384,10 @@ static int load_submodule_config_from_index(
 			else
 				sm->flags |= GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__INDEX_NOT_SUBMODULE;
 		} else if (S_ISGITLINK(entry->mode)) {
-			if (!submodule_get(&sm, repo, entry->path, NULL))
+			if (!submodule_get(&sm, repo, entry->path, NULL)) {
 				submodule_update_from_index_entry(sm, entry);
+				git_submodule_free(sm);
+			}
 		} else if (strcmp(entry->path, GIT_MODULES_FILE) == 0)
 			git_oid_cpy(gitmodules_oid, &entry->id);
 	}
@@ -1339,9 +1432,11 @@ static int load_submodule_config_from_head(
 			else
 				sm->flags |= GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__HEAD_NOT_SUBMODULE;
 		} else if (S_ISGITLINK(entry->mode)) {
-			if (!submodule_get(&sm, repo, entry->path, NULL))
+			if (!submodule_get(&sm, repo, entry->path, NULL)) {
 				submodule_update_from_head_data(
 					sm, entry->mode, &entry->id);
+				git_submodule_free(sm);
+			}
 		} else if (strcmp(entry->path, GIT_MODULES_FILE) == 0 &&
 				   git_oid_iszero(gitmodules_oid)) {
 			git_oid_cpy(gitmodules_oid, &entry->id);
@@ -1395,13 +1490,13 @@ static git_config_backend *open_gitmodules(
 	return mods;
 }
 
-static int load_submodule_config(git_repository *repo)
+static int load_submodule_config(git_repository *repo, bool reload)
 {
 	int error;
 	git_oid gitmodules_oid;
 	git_config_backend *mods = NULL;
 
-	if (repo->submodules)
+	if (!reload && repo->submodules)
 		return 0;
 
 	memset(&gitmodules_oid, 0, sizeof(gitmodules_oid));
@@ -1414,6 +1509,8 @@ static int load_submodule_config(git_repository *repo)
 		GITERR_CHECK_ALLOC(repo->submodules);
 	}
 
+	/* TODO: only do the following if the sources appear modified */
+
 	/* add submodule information from index */
 
 	if ((error = load_submodule_config_from_index(repo, &gitmodules_oid)) < 0)
@@ -1433,8 +1530,16 @@ static int load_submodule_config(git_repository *repo)
 
 	/* shallow scan submodules in work tree */
 
-	if (!git_repository_is_bare(repo))
-		error = git_submodule_foreach(repo, submodule_load_from_wd_lite, NULL);
+	if (!git_repository_is_bare(repo)) {
+		git_submodule *sm;
+
+		git_strmap_foreach_value(repo->submodules, sm, {
+			sm->flags &= ~GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__ALL_WD_FLAGS;
+		});
+		git_strmap_foreach_value(repo->submodules, sm, {
+			submodule_load_from_wd_lite(sm);
+		});
+	}
 
 cleanup:
 	if (mods != NULL)
diff --git a/src/submodule.h b/src/submodule.h
index 5e532e1..053cb61 100644
--- a/src/submodule.h
+++ b/src/submodule.h
@@ -111,6 +111,11 @@ enum {
 	GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__INDEX_MULTIPLE_ENTRIES = (1u << 27),
 };
 
+#define GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__ALL_WD_FLAGS \
+	(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_WD | \
+	 GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__WD_OID_VALID | \
+	 GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__WD_FLAGS)
+
 #define GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS__CLEAR_INTERNAL(S) \
 	((S) & ~(0xFFFFFFFFu << 20))
 
@@ -128,9 +133,6 @@ extern int git_submodule_open_bare(
 	git_repository **repo,
 	git_submodule *submodule);
 
-/* Release reference to submodule object - not currently for external use */
-extern void git_submodule_free(git_submodule *sm);
-
 extern int git_submodule_parse_ignore(
 	git_submodule_ignore_t *out, const char *value);
 extern int git_submodule_parse_update(
diff --git a/tests/diff/submodules.c b/tests/diff/submodules.c
index 314cf1f..80dfcaa 100644
--- a/tests/diff/submodules.c
+++ b/tests/diff/submodules.c
@@ -131,7 +131,7 @@ void test_diff_submodules__dirty_submodule_2(void)
 
 	g_repo = setup_fixture_submodules();
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo));
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo, 1));
 
 	opts.flags = GIT_DIFF_INCLUDE_UNTRACKED |
 		GIT_DIFF_SHOW_UNTRACKED_CONTENT |
@@ -165,7 +165,7 @@ void test_diff_submodules__dirty_submodule_2(void)
 
 	git_diff_free(diff);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo));
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo, 1));
 
 	cl_git_pass(git_diff_index_to_workdir(&diff, g_repo, NULL, &opts));
 	check_diff_patches(diff, expected_dirty);
@@ -291,7 +291,9 @@ void test_diff_submodules__invalid_cache(void)
 	check_diff_patches(diff, expected_dirty);
 	git_diff_free(diff);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo));
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo, 1));
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, smpath));
 
 	cl_git_pass(git_diff_index_to_workdir(&diff, g_repo, NULL, &opts));
@@ -344,6 +346,8 @@ void test_diff_submodules__invalid_cache(void)
 
 	p_unlink("submod2/sm_changed_head/new_around_here");
 
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+
 	cl_git_pass(git_diff_index_to_workdir(&diff, g_repo, NULL, &opts));
 	check_diff_patches(diff, expected_moved);
 	git_diff_free(diff);
diff --git a/tests/stash/submodules.c b/tests/stash/submodules.c
index 137c440..8cadca0 100644
--- a/tests/stash/submodules.c
+++ b/tests/stash/submodules.c
@@ -19,6 +19,9 @@ void test_stash_submodules__initialize(void)
 
 void test_stash_submodules__cleanup(void)
 {
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+	sm = NULL;
+
 	git_signature_free(signature);
 	signature = NULL;
 }
diff --git a/tests/status/submodules.c b/tests/status/submodules.c
index 80ff162..8575f9f 100644
--- a/tests/status/submodules.c
+++ b/tests/status/submodules.c
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@ void test_status_submodules__api(void)
 	cl_assert(sm != NULL);
 	cl_assert_equal_s("testrepo", git_submodule_name(sm));
 	cl_assert_equal_s("testrepo", git_submodule_path(sm));
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
 }
 
 void test_status_submodules__0(void)
@@ -136,6 +137,7 @@ void test_status_submodules__moved_head(void)
 
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "testrepo"));
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_open(&smrepo, sm));
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
 
 	/* move submodule HEAD to c47800c7266a2be04c571c04d5a6614691ea99bd */
 	cl_git_pass(
diff --git a/tests/submodule/lookup.c b/tests/submodule/lookup.c
index ac3fa04..cc29b11 100644
--- a/tests/submodule/lookup.c
+++ b/tests/submodule/lookup.c
@@ -12,31 +12,25 @@ void test_submodule_lookup__initialize(void)
 
 void test_submodule_lookup__simple_lookup(void)
 {
-	git_submodule *sm;
-
-	/* lookup existing */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 
 	/* lookup pending change in .gitmodules that is not in HEAD */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited");
 
-	/* lookup pending change in .gitmodules that is neither in HEAD nor index */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_gitmodules_only"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
+	/* lookup pending change in .gitmodules that is not in HEAD nor index */
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_gitmodules_only");
 
 	/* lookup git repo subdir that is not added as submodule */
-	cl_assert(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not-submodule") == GIT_EEXISTS);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not-submodule", GIT_EEXISTS);
 
 	/* lookup existing directory that is not a submodule */
-	cl_assert(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_dir") == GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_dir", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
 
 	/* lookup existing file that is not a submodule */
-	cl_assert(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_file") == GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_file", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
 
 	/* lookup non-existent item */
-	cl_assert(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "no_such_file") == GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "no_such_file", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
 }
 
 void test_submodule_lookup__accessors(void)
@@ -57,6 +51,9 @@ void test_submodule_lookup__accessors(void)
 	cl_assert(git_submodule_ignore(sm) == GIT_SUBMODULE_IGNORE_NONE);
 	cl_assert(git_submodule_update(sm) == GIT_SUBMODULE_UPDATE_CHECKOUT);
 
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+
+
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
 	cl_assert_equal_s("sm_changed_head", git_submodule_name(sm));
 
@@ -65,6 +62,9 @@ void test_submodule_lookup__accessors(void)
 	cl_assert(git_oid_streq(git_submodule_wd_id(sm),
 		"3d9386c507f6b093471a3e324085657a3c2b4247") == 0);
 
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+
+
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
 	cl_assert_equal_s("sm_added_and_uncommited", git_submodule_name(sm));
 
@@ -72,6 +72,9 @@ void test_submodule_lookup__accessors(void)
 	cl_assert(git_submodule_head_id(sm) == NULL);
 	cl_assert(git_oid_streq(git_submodule_wd_id(sm), oid) == 0);
 
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+
+
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_missing_commits"));
 	cl_assert_equal_s("sm_missing_commits", git_submodule_name(sm));
 
@@ -79,6 +82,8 @@ void test_submodule_lookup__accessors(void)
 	cl_assert(git_oid_streq(git_submodule_head_id(sm), oid) == 0);
 	cl_assert(git_oid_streq(git_submodule_wd_id(sm),
 		"5e4963595a9774b90524d35a807169049de8ccad") == 0);
+
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
 }
 
 typedef struct {
@@ -104,69 +109,35 @@ void test_submodule_lookup__foreach(void)
 void test_submodule_lookup__lookup_even_with_unborn_head(void)
 {
 	git_reference *head;
-	git_submodule *sm;
 
 	/* put us on an unborn branch */
 	cl_git_pass(git_reference_symbolic_create(
 		&head, g_repo, "HEAD", "refs/heads/garbage", 1, NULL, NULL));
 	git_reference_free(head);
 
-	/* lookup existing */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
-
-	/* lookup pending change in .gitmodules that is not in HEAD */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
-
-	/* lookup pending change in .gitmodules that is neither in HEAD nor index */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_gitmodules_only"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
-
-	/* lookup git repo subdir that is not added as submodule */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not-submodule"));
-
-	/* lookup existing directory that is not a submodule */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_dir"));
-
-	/* lookup existing file that is not a submodule */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_file"));
-
-	/* lookup non-existent item */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "no_such_file"));
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited");
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_gitmodules_only");
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not-submodule", GIT_EEXISTS);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_dir", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_file", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "no_such_file", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
 }
 
 void test_submodule_lookup__lookup_even_with_missing_index(void)
 {
 	git_index *idx;
-	git_submodule *sm;
 
 	/* give the repo an empty index */
 	cl_git_pass(git_index_new(&idx));
 	git_repository_set_index(g_repo, idx);
 	git_index_free(idx);
 
-	/* lookup existing */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
-
-	/* lookup pending change in .gitmodules that is not in HEAD */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
-
-	/* lookup pending change in .gitmodules that is neither in HEAD nor index */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_gitmodules_only"));
-	cl_assert(sm);
-
-	/* lookup git repo subdir that is not added as submodule */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not-submodule"));
-
-	/* lookup existing directory that is not a submodule */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_dir"));
-
-	/* lookup existing file that is not a submodule */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_file"));
-
-	/* lookup non-existent item */
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "no_such_file"));
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited");
+	assert_submodule_exists(g_repo, "sm_gitmodules_only");
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not-submodule", GIT_EEXISTS);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_dir", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_file", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "no_such_file", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
 }
diff --git a/tests/submodule/modify.c b/tests/submodule/modify.c
index e3e4d8a..1aaa563 100644
--- a/tests/submodule/modify.c
+++ b/tests/submodule/modify.c
@@ -21,15 +21,16 @@ void test_submodule_modify__add(void)
 	const char *s;
 
 	/* re-add existing submodule */
-	cl_assert(
-		git_submodule_add_setup(NULL, g_repo, "whatever", "sm_unchanged", 1) ==
-		GIT_EEXISTS );
+	cl_assert_equal_i(
+		GIT_EEXISTS,
+		git_submodule_add_setup(NULL, g_repo, "whatever", "sm_unchanged", 1));
 
 	/* add a submodule using a gitlink */
 
 	cl_git_pass(
 		git_submodule_add_setup(&sm, g_repo, SM_LIBGIT2_URL, SM_LIBGIT2, 1)
 		);
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
 
 	cl_assert(git_path_isfile("submod2/" SM_LIBGIT2 "/.git"));
 
@@ -48,6 +49,7 @@ void test_submodule_modify__add(void)
 	cl_git_pass(
 		git_submodule_add_setup(&sm, g_repo, SM_LIBGIT2_URL, SM_LIBGIT2B, 0)
 		);
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
 
 	cl_assert(git_path_isdir("submod2/" SM_LIBGIT2B "/.git"));
 	cl_assert(git_path_isfile("submod2/" SM_LIBGIT2B "/.git/HEAD"));
@@ -95,7 +97,7 @@ void test_submodule_modify__init(void)
 	/* call init and see that settings are copied */
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_foreach(g_repo, init_one_submodule, NULL));
 
-	git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo);
+	git_submodule_reload_all(g_repo, 1);
 
 	/* confirm submodule data in config */
 	cl_git_pass(git_repository_config(&cfg, g_repo));
@@ -159,6 +161,10 @@ void test_submodule_modify__sync(void)
 	cl_git_pass(git_config_get_string(&str, cfg, "submodule."SM3".url"));
 	cl_assert_equal_s(git_submodule_url(sm3), str);
 	git_config_free(cfg);
+
+	git_submodule_free(sm1);
+	git_submodule_free(sm2);
+	git_submodule_free(sm3);
 }
 
 void test_submodule_modify__edit_and_save(void)
@@ -231,7 +237,7 @@ void test_submodule_modify__edit_and_save(void)
 	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_SUBMODULE_RECURSE_YES, git_submodule_fetch_recurse_submodules(sm1));
 
 	/* call reload and check that the new values are loaded */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm1));
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm1, 0));
 
 	cl_assert_equal_s(SM_LIBGIT2_URL, git_submodule_url(sm1));
 	cl_assert_equal_i(
@@ -253,16 +259,18 @@ void test_submodule_modify__edit_and_save(void)
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_RECURSE_NO, git_submodule_fetch_recurse_submodules(sm2));
 
 	/* set fetchRecurseSubmodules on-demand */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm1));
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm1, 0));
 	git_submodule_set_fetch_recurse_submodules(sm1, GIT_SUBMODULE_RECURSE_ONDEMAND);
 	cl_assert_equal_i(
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_RECURSE_ONDEMAND, git_submodule_fetch_recurse_submodules(sm1));
 	/* call save */
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_save(sm1));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm1));
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm1, 0));
 	cl_assert_equal_i(
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_RECURSE_ONDEMAND, git_submodule_fetch_recurse_submodules(sm1));
 
+	git_submodule_free(sm1);
+	git_submodule_free(sm2);
 	git_repository_free(r2);
 	git__free(old_url);
 }
diff --git a/tests/submodule/status.c b/tests/submodule/status.c
index 3245923..6473491 100644
--- a/tests/submodule/status.c
+++ b/tests/submodule/status.c
@@ -18,19 +18,43 @@ void test_submodule_status__cleanup(void)
 
 void test_submodule_status__unchanged(void)
 {
-	unsigned int status, expected;
-	git_submodule *sm;
-
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
-	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
-
-	expected = GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_HEAD |
+	unsigned int status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
+	unsigned int expected =
+		GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_HEAD |
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_INDEX |
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_CONFIG |
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_WD;
 
-	cl_assert(status == expected);
+	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
+	cl_assert(expected == status);
+}
+
+static void rm_submodule(const char *name)
+{
+	git_buf path = GIT_BUF_INIT;
+	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_workdir(g_repo), name));
+	cl_git_pass(git_futils_rmdir_r(path.ptr, NULL, GIT_RMDIR_REMOVE_FILES));
+	git_buf_free(&path);
+}
+
+static void add_submodule_to_index(const char *name)
+{
+	git_submodule *sm;
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, name));
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_add_to_index(sm, true));
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+}
+
+static void rm_submodule_from_index(const char *name)
+{
+	git_index *index;
+	size_t pos;
+
+	cl_git_pass(git_repository_index(&index, g_repo));
+	cl_assert(!git_index_find(&pos, index, name));
+	cl_git_pass(git_index_remove(index, name, 0));
+	cl_git_pass(git_index_write(index));
+	git_index_free(index);
 }
 
 /* 4 values of GIT_SUBMODULE_IGNORE to check */
@@ -38,81 +62,49 @@ void test_submodule_status__unchanged(void)
 void test_submodule_status__ignore_none(void)
 {
 	unsigned int status;
-	git_submodule *sm;
-	git_buf path = GIT_BUF_INIT;
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_workdir(g_repo), "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_rmdir_r(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, GIT_RMDIR_REMOVE_FILES));
+	rm_submodule("sm_unchanged");
 
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_dir"));
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not-submodule"));
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not"));
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_dir", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not-submodule", GIT_EEXISTS);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not", GIT_EEXISTS);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_index"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_index");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_INDEX_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_file");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_UNTRACKED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_missing_commits"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_missing_commits");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_INDEX_ADDED) != 0);
 
 	/* removed sm_unchanged for deleted workdir */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_DELETED) != 0);
 
 	/* now mkdir sm_unchanged to test uninitialized */
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, 0755, 0));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir("sm_unchanged", "submod2", 0755, 0));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_UNINITIALIZED) != 0);
 
 	/* update sm_changed_head in index */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_add_to_index(sm, true));
-	/* reload is not needed because add_to_index updates the submodule data */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	add_submodule_to_index("sm_changed_head");
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_INDEX_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
 	/* remove sm_changed_head from index */
-	{
-		git_index *index;
-		size_t pos;
-
-		cl_git_pass(git_repository_index(&index, g_repo));
-		cl_assert(!git_index_find(&pos, index, "sm_changed_head"));
-		cl_git_pass(git_index_remove(index, "sm_changed_head", 0));
-		cl_git_pass(git_index_write(index));
-
-		git_index_free(index);
-	}
-
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	rm_submodule_from_index("sm_changed_head");
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_INDEX_DELETED) != 0);
-
-	git_buf_free(&path);
 }
 
 static int set_sm_ignore(git_submodule *sm, const char *name, void *payload)
@@ -126,191 +118,136 @@ static int set_sm_ignore(git_submodule *sm, const char *name, void *payload)
 void test_submodule_status__ignore_untracked(void)
 {
 	unsigned int status;
-	git_submodule *sm;
-	git_buf path = GIT_BUF_INIT;
 	git_submodule_ignore_t ign = GIT_SUBMODULE_IGNORE_UNTRACKED;
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_workdir(g_repo), "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_rmdir_r(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, GIT_RMDIR_REMOVE_FILES));
-
+	rm_submodule("sm_unchanged");
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_foreach(g_repo, set_sm_ignore, &ign));
 
-	cl_git_fail(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not-submodule"));
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_dir", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not-submodule", GIT_EEXISTS);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not", GIT_EEXISTS);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_index"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_index");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_INDEX_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_file");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_missing_commits"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_missing_commits");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_INDEX_ADDED) != 0);
 
 	/* removed sm_unchanged for deleted workdir */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_DELETED) != 0);
 
 	/* now mkdir sm_unchanged to test uninitialized */
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, 0755, 0));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir("sm_unchanged", "submod2", 0755, 0));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_UNINITIALIZED) != 0);
 
 	/* update sm_changed_head in index */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_add_to_index(sm, true));
-	/* reload is not needed because add_to_index updates the submodule data */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	add_submodule_to_index("sm_changed_head");
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_INDEX_MODIFIED) != 0);
-
-	git_buf_free(&path);
 }
 
 void test_submodule_status__ignore_dirty(void)
 {
 	unsigned int status;
-	git_submodule *sm;
-	git_buf path = GIT_BUF_INIT;
 	git_submodule_ignore_t ign = GIT_SUBMODULE_IGNORE_DIRTY;
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_workdir(g_repo), "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_rmdir_r(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, GIT_RMDIR_REMOVE_FILES));
-
+	rm_submodule("sm_unchanged");
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_foreach(g_repo, set_sm_ignore, &ign));
 
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_dir"));
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not-submodule"));
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not"));
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_dir", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not-submodule", GIT_EEXISTS);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not", GIT_EEXISTS);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_index"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_index");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_file");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_missing_commits"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_missing_commits");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_MODIFIED) != 0);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_INDEX_ADDED) != 0);
 
 	/* removed sm_unchanged for deleted workdir */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_DELETED) != 0);
 
 	/* now mkdir sm_unchanged to test uninitialized */
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, 0755, 0));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir("sm_unchanged", "submod2", 0755, 0));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_WD_UNINITIALIZED) != 0);
 
 	/* update sm_changed_head in index */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_add_to_index(sm, true));
-	/* reload is not needed because add_to_index updates the submodule data */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	add_submodule_to_index("sm_changed_head");
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert((status & GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_INDEX_MODIFIED) != 0);
-
-	git_buf_free(&path);
 }
 
 void test_submodule_status__ignore_all(void)
 {
 	unsigned int status;
-	git_submodule *sm;
-	git_buf path = GIT_BUF_INIT;
 	git_submodule_ignore_t ign = GIT_SUBMODULE_IGNORE_ALL;
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_workdir(g_repo), "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_rmdir_r(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, GIT_RMDIR_REMOVE_FILES));
-
+	rm_submodule("sm_unchanged");
 	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_foreach(g_repo, set_sm_ignore, &ign));
 
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_ENOTFOUND,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "just_a_dir"));
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not-submodule"));
-	cl_assert_equal_i(GIT_EEXISTS,
-		git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "not"));
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "just_a_dir", GIT_ENOTFOUND);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not-submodule", GIT_EEXISTS);
+	refute_submodule_exists(g_repo, "not", GIT_EEXISTS);
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_index"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_index");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_file");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_untracked_file");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_missing_commits"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_missing_commits");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_added_and_uncommited");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
 	/* removed sm_unchanged for deleted workdir */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
 	/* now mkdir sm_unchanged to test uninitialized */
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, 0755, 0));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_reload(sm));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir("sm_unchanged", "submod2", 0755, 0));
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
 	/* update sm_changed_head in index */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_changed_head"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_add_to_index(sm, true));
-	/* reload is not needed because add_to_index updates the submodule data */
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	add_submodule_to_index("sm_changed_head");
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_changed_head");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
-
-	git_buf_free(&path);
 }
 
 typedef struct {
@@ -401,29 +338,23 @@ void test_submodule_status__iterator(void)
 
 void test_submodule_status__untracked_dirs_containing_ignored_files(void)
 {
-	git_buf path = GIT_BUF_INIT;
 	unsigned int status, expected;
-	git_submodule *sm;
-
-	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_path(g_repo), "modules/sm_unchanged/info/exclude"));
-	cl_git_append2file(git_buf_cstr(&path), "\n*.ignored\n");
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_repository_workdir(g_repo), "sm_unchanged/directory"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_futils_mkdir(git_buf_cstr(&path), NULL, 0755, 0));
-	cl_git_pass(git_buf_joinpath(&path, git_buf_cstr(&path), "i_am.ignored"));
-	cl_git_mkfile(git_buf_cstr(&path), "ignored this file, please\n");
+	cl_git_append2file(
+		"submod2/.git/modules/sm_unchanged/info/exclude", "\n*.ignored\n");
 
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, g_repo, "sm_unchanged"));
-	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	cl_git_pass(
+		git_futils_mkdir("sm_unchanged/directory", "submod2", 0755, 0));
+	cl_git_mkfile(
+		"submod2/sm_unchanged/directory/i_am.ignored",
+		"ignore this file, please\n");
 
+	status = get_submodule_status(g_repo, "sm_unchanged");
 	cl_assert(GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IS_UNMODIFIED(status));
 
 	expected = GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_HEAD |
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_INDEX |
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_CONFIG |
 		GIT_SUBMODULE_STATUS_IN_WD;
-
 	cl_assert(status == expected);
-
-	git_buf_free(&path);
 }
diff --git a/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.c b/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.c
index d575067..546f091 100644
--- a/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.c
+++ b/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.c
@@ -125,3 +125,32 @@ git_repository *setup_fixture_submod2(void)
 
 	return repo;
 }
+
+void assert_submodule_exists(git_repository *repo, const char *name)
+{
+	git_submodule *sm;
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, repo, name));
+	cl_assert(sm);
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+}
+
+void refute_submodule_exists(
+	git_repository *repo, const char *name, int expected_error)
+{
+	git_submodule *sm;
+	cl_assert_equal_i(
+		expected_error, git_submodule_lookup(&sm, repo, name));
+}
+
+unsigned int get_submodule_status(git_repository *repo, const char *name)
+{
+	git_submodule *sm = NULL;
+	unsigned int status = 0;
+
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_lookup(&sm, repo, name));
+	cl_assert(sm);
+	cl_git_pass(git_submodule_status(&status, sm));
+	git_submodule_free(sm);
+
+	return status;
+}
diff --git a/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.h b/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.h
index 610c407..ec5510e 100644
--- a/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.h
+++ b/tests/submodule/submodule_helpers.h
@@ -3,3 +3,8 @@ extern void rewrite_gitmodules(const char *workdir);
 /* these will automatically set a cleanup callback */
 extern git_repository *setup_fixture_submodules(void);
 extern git_repository *setup_fixture_submod2(void);
+
+extern unsigned int get_submodule_status(git_repository *, const char *);
+
+extern void assert_submodule_exists(git_repository *, const char *);
+extern void refute_submodule_exists(git_repository *, const char *, int err);